The Partial Historians

A long time ago in a galaxy far, far away, one of our lovely Patreons requested that we talk about archaic Roman religion. Religion is Dr G’s favourite topic, so we decided it was well and truly time for us to chat about what the Romans were up to in their early days. As with all aspects of the archaic period, it can be difficult to find reliable and detailed source material for certain aspects of religious life. However, the gods were hugely important to the Romans, so there are a variety of sources that we can use to piece together an accurate picture. This includes: ·        shrines, temples and tombs·        inscriptions·        votive offerings ·        the religious calendar ·        artwork, such as frescoes and sculptures·        coinage·        the priestly colleges·        details of rituals ·        Records, including from groups like the Arval Brethren, a group of 12 priests who worshipped Dea Dia, an agricultural goddess  ·        Roman law ·        Extra special sources like the Iguvine Tablets from the mid to late Republic, which were written in Umbrian ·        as well as literary sources  Where did religion sit in ancient Rome? We discuss the nature and role of Roman religion in society, whilst trying to mythbust the belief that the Romans just stole everything from the Greeks.Archaic Roman religion is fascinating, with deities like Quirinus and Robigo (goddess of grain mildew) seeming to date back a long way. As Rome progressed, the state cults became more formalised and ritualised, and new gods were incorporated. You may recall that when the Romans conquered Veii in 396 BCE, they went to great lengths to coax the resident goddess, Juno Regina, to their city. Roman expansion allowed them to come into contact with a greater variety of deities.   There were several important priestly positions in Rome that we refer to in this episode, so here’s your cheat sheet: ·        Rex sacrorum/ Rex sacrificulus – The rex sacrorum was a patrician and seems to have assumed the priestly duties of the kings in the Republic. ·        Flamen Dialis (Jupiter)·        Flamen Martialis (Mars)·        Flamens Quirinalis (Quirinus – eventually associated with Romulus)·        Pontifex Maximus (chief pontiff or priest) ·        And then there were minor flamens, who served gods such as Vulcan, Ceres and Flora  ·        And, of course, we also talk about the Vestals! Dr G would never leave these ladies out Getting Personal On a more personal level, the Romans were also surrounded by the lares, guardian spirits who were seemingly connected to place, such as the hearth, streets, neighbourhoods and boundaries. If you have been to Pompeii or Herculaneum, you may have seen a lararium, or one of the shrines that people could have in their houses for these deities. Their origin is debated, but no one can deny their presence in the Roman world. Thinks to Look Out For: ·        Augury – and our musings on how the Romans would have responded to kookaburras ·        The importance of nature  ·        The invention of a new dessert: Flamines banana ·        The sacred tree house where only patricians are allowed  

We have finally reached the LAST part of our coverage of the Gallic Sack of Rome. Once again, whilst there are similar elements in our sources, it is astonishing to see the different way the authors weave the details together.Another Amazing Camillus Montage  It is not often that Diodorus Sicilus is praised for his accuracy, but this is one of those rare moments. Savour it, everyone! Dr G takes us through the details of his account, in which Camillus is on a military rampage. Forget the Rocky training montage that Livy includes. This is a Rambo montage, with Camillus kicking ass all over Italy. He’s taking down the Volscians, the Aequians, the Etruscans…. where does he find the time? It is during his escapades that Camillus recovers the ransomed gold, not the rather more dramatic intervention included in Livy’s history. However, Diodorus and Livy are not the only sources to have different explanations for the return of the gold! Some sources claim it was the people of Caere who retrieve the ransom after defeating the Gauls in a battle, and others claim it was one of the Emperor Tiberius’ ancestors who won it back in a battle with a Gallic chieftain. We will let you guess which version Dr Rad prefers…There’s No Place like Rome Unlike Diodorus, Livy is content to keep the focus on affairs inside Rome. Camillus gets a triumph and then keeps his dictatorship because things are not yet as they should be. Camillus needs to make sure that Rome remains on the good side of the gods. Purification and restoration of the temples was the name of the game. However, most of the remainder of Livy’s account for this year is dedicated to Camillus giving the MOTHER of all speeches. The tribunes of the plebs were stirring up trouble by pushing for Rome to be moved to Veii. Urgh, the tribunes. They were the only people Camillus did not miss whilst he was in exile.  Why go to the effort of rebuilding the city when there’s a perfectly good abandoned one right over there? Well, Camillus can tell you exactly why and in a painful level of detail. To cut a long story short: ·        Rome is far too amazeballs to leave·        It seems incredibly DUMB to have defended it fiercely against the Gauls if they just planned to up sticks ·        Um, the location?! The views?  ·        You can’t just relocate your religion – we JUST patched things up with the gods, guys ·        This is just lazy behaviour and he doesn’t like it. In fact, it is UN-ROMAN Camillus’ rhetoric was incredibly powerful, but a sign sent straight from the gods helped to seal the deal. The Romans were staying put! Time to get Bob the Builder on the phone. Whichever historian you prefer, we both end up in roughly similar places by the end of 390 BCE (or thereabouts): the gods have been taken care of, the city has been rebuilt, the gold is back in Roman hands, and Camillus is the most awesome general… well, ever! And THAT brings the Gallic Sack of Rome to a close. Things to Look Out For: ·        The famously preserved head that was allegedly discovered on the Capitoline ·        The possible founding of the Capitoline Games for Jupiter Optimus Maximus ·        The building of a temple to Aius Locutius who TRIED to warn them about the Gauls. Schwoops!·        Matrons! Yes, finally some women briefly grace our podcast once more ·        A mention of the Social War (91-87 BCE) between Rome and its Italian allies over their rights. Some of Camillus’ speech may have been shaped by pro-Roman propaganda that originated during this conflict. ·        Ancient building programs – state-funded, no less ·        Very sweaty historians by the end of this showFor our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/Support the showPatreonKo-FiRead our booksRex: The Seven Kings of RomeYour Cheeky Guide to the Roman EmpireThere wasn’t room to have the social media links in there as well so I’ve prioritised the books for now and our patreon.

You know that the Partial Historians can’t resist talking about Ancient Rome on film, so we were thrilled to chat to Dr Jeremiah McCall about his book, Swords and Cinema.Who is our special guest?Dr Jeremiah McCall (or DMac as his students call him) is a teacher at Cincinnati Country Day School in Ohio with a PhD in Ancient History. Along with an interest in Roman military and political systems in the Republic, he has done a lot of work on pedagogy of using video games to learn about history, publishing Gaming the Past: Using Video Games to Teach Secondary History in 2022. He divides his research time between historical game studies and Roman history. Dr McCall’s other publications include The Cavalry of the Roman Republic (2002); the Sword of Rome (2012), Clan Fabius: Defenders of Rome (2018) and Rivalries that Destroyed the Roman Republic (2022). Manly Men We will touch on the battle scenes and depiction of the Roman military in all your favourite Roman movies and TV shows. Things to look out for: ·        The defeat of Spartacus - Spartacus vs. Rome: The Last Battle·        The battle of Alessia (52 BCE) in HBO’s Rome - Rome Fighting with Gauls HD·        The battle of Philippi in HBO’s Rome - HBO Rome - Battle of Philippi (Battle only)·        The opening battle sequence in Gladiator (2000) - Gladiator 2000 Opening Battle·        And a bit on Centurion (2010) and The Eagle (2011) to finish!·        The Eagle | Channing Tatum Fends Off A Midnight Sneak Attack·        The Eagle | Channing Tatum Leads Roman Centurions Into Battle·        Centurion 2010 Best movie Scene HD·        Plus some things that get set on fire! You will need your popcorn for this special episode! Our music is by Bettina Joy de Guzman. 

The sacred geese have attempted to save Rome, but the siege of the Gauls is still not over! What could possibly happen next? We continue our deep dive into the events purported to all take place In 390 BCE.Despite the Romans apparently being surprised by the Gauls turning up on their doorstep, the Gauls have been in northern Italy for some time as far as we can trace archaeological evidence. The rumours that the Gauls came to central Italy in the search for cooler weather, but instead what they find is a city of Romans, and as the siege drags on, hygiene starts to emerge as a problem.Maybe we can come to an arrangement?The siege is getting tedious for both sides, so amidst the military encounters, conversations start about maybe bringing the siege to a close through mutual agreement. The details of the siege consequences include lack of food, issues with cadavers, and spread of disease. And it seems neither the Romans or the Gauls want to keep going with this situation.“Woe to the Conquered!”Those Gauls are pretty cheeky in the moment of coming to a monetary agreement to ensure they’ll pack up their siege and leave Roman territory. Not only to they ask for 1000 pounds of gold, but they have the nerve to add some extra items to the scales to encourage the Romans to pay even more than this sum. Perhaps even worse, are our sources really telling us a story of Rome resisting the Gauls, or could it be the case that ALL the city was taken and the Romans were legitimately and completely defeated? We explore the possibilities. Where in the world is Camillus?Is he in Ardea pumping out a training montage with the locals in preparation to swoop in and rescue Rome? Or is waiting in the wings but misses his cue to come on stage leaving Rome to deal with the Gauls all by themselves? Our sources have some disagreements which we’ll delve into.Things to listen out for:An origin story for Jupiter Pistor (Jupiter ‘the baker’)The centrality or not of Camillus to the siege narrativeImportant references to “Eye of the Tiger” What are the Gauls interested in?What might colour the Romans’ perceptions of the Gauls?Where did the Romans find 1000 POUNDS of gold????The role of the Roman matrons in saving the CityThe tricky legacy of who paid the ransom to the Gauls and what happens afterwards…

Marc Hyden returns to the show to discuss the life and times about the second Flavian emperor Titus. The Flavians were the second dynasty of the imperial period extending from 69 CE until the assassination of Domitian in 96 CE. Titus’ reign is short, but significant. We sit down with Marc to consider details of Titus’ rule of Rome and its impact across the Mediterranean, particularly involving Judaea.Marc’s book Emperor Titus: The Right Hand of Vespasian (2025) is out now and explores at lot of the contextual details that helps us appreciate Titus’ rule as emperor from 79-81 CE. What’s the state of Rome in 68/69 CE?Nero’s death leads to a period of political chaos in Rome. If you’re keen to delve into the notorious Year of the Four Emperors, we recommend checking out our interview with Dr Rob Cromarty.Once the dust settles, the military general Vespasian ends up as the top dog in Rome. From unlikely beginnings, Vespasian sets up the Flavian family for dominance over the next thirty years and his eldest son, Titus, was his right-hand man.The Flavians and JudaeaIt is impossible to truly understand the Flavians’ rise without considering the foothold that they had in Judaea. Military actions in the east were part and parcel of the Roman empire, but the particulars of Vespasian as the Roman general in Judaea when relationships broke down means that Vespasian (and thus the Flavians) are substantially enriched by the sack of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem. Marc takes us through some of the key details including Josephus’ role in the conflict, the riots across the regionTitus and BereniceApparently you can be a Roman a war, but still fall in love with a lady from the local aristocracy. The story of Titus and Berenice is one of the most interesting details of the Flavian era, and we don’t know as much about their relationship than we’d like, but there’s enough gossip to create something of a historical record! Tune in for the details of their seemingly on-again, off-again liaison.  The Busiest Reign and the Most Tragic DemiseTitus comes into full imperial power on the natural death of his father Vespasian and, oh boy, is he busy. He rules over the eruption of Vesuvius, he formally opens the Flavian Amphitheatre (aka the Colosseum), not to mention a pestilence. With all this busyness, we can only wonder how his reign would have gone if he lived for longer. But sadly it is not to be. Titus dies after a short but intense illness opening wide speculation about the cause of death. We explore some here.Things to listen out forQuestions about the reliability of Suetonius (shock! horror!)Titus, the playboy?The marriages of Titus and Arrecina Tertulla and Marcia FurnillaThe role of Praetorian PrefectJosephus’ account of the war in JudaeaAn important farm house in Sabine country

In this episode, we discuss one of the more tragic episodes from the Gallic sack of Rome. We Who Are About to Die…The Romans who have remained in the city take up their defensive positions on the Capitol. The old patricians did not join them. Instead, their retired to their houses. Wearing their old robes of state, they settled down in the middle of their houses on ivory chairs to await the end. Livy reports that some of his accounts indicate that the pontifex maximus (chief priest) led the ex-magistrates in a vow, in which they were devoting themselves to death for the sake of the city and its citizens.The Gauls found their blood had cooled; after all, they had not had to fight the Romans to seize control of the city. They had just wandered in. They could see that the Capitol had been fortified, so they kept an eye on that area. However, it was time to go SHOPPING! All these abandoned streets and houses – it was theirs for the taking. After some pillaging and plundering, the Gauls touched base again in the Forum. The plebeian houses in the area were locked up – they weren’t taking any chances whilst they were out of town. But the houses of the elite were mysteriously open.As the Gauls entered the patrician dwellings, a shocking sight met their eyes. The old ex-magistrates, sitting as still as statues, dressed in their robes of state, just waiting for them. Not quite believing their eyes, one of the Gauls reached out to touch the beard of one of the patricians. How rude! The patrician clocked him in the head with an ivory mace. The Gauls were not going to show restraint now. The patricians were slain, the houses of the Roman citizens looted, and finally, the city was set on fire. But not the whole city – these Gauls weren’t FOOLS! They wanted to keep a bargaining chip in their back pockets. Maybe these pesky Romans on the citadel might surrender to save their homes? The Romans in question were in their own kind of hell as they sat on the Capitol and had to watch the destruction. Fortune had turned her back on them.Did this mean that the Romans were going to give up? It most certainly did NOT! When the Gauls finally assaulted the Capitol, the Romans were ready for them. They managed to hold the line. If the Gauls wanted to seize all of Rome, they were going to have to settle in for a siege. As the Gauls made themselves comfortable and set about plundering the countryside, over in Ardea, the exiled Camillus heard of the attack on Rome. What could he do? Could he possibly whip up an inspirational speech and persuade the Ardeates to fight the Gallic invaders? You betcha! Things to Look Out For: ·        Dazzling rhetoric ·        Far too much bloodshed ·        Silent, manly tears from the Romans on the Capitol ·        Ye olde time Roman racism ·        The Gauls putting on a SHOW of destruction for the Romans

Marcus Furius Camillus is an ancient Roman that it is hard to ignore, especially in the early days of the 4th century BCE. He has been regularly popping up in our episodes from the era, so we thought it would be wonderful to invite on a special guest to discuss his whole life in one handy biographic episode. Who is Marc Hyden?Marc Hyden is the Director of State Government Affairs at a Washington DC-based think tank, as well as being a weekly columnist for the Newnan Times-Herald, Albany Herald, and Rome News-Tribune. Marc graduated from Georgia State University with a degree in philosophy. Marc has authored many, many books on Ancient Rome. His most recent work is Emperor Titus: The Right Hand of Vespasian (McFarland, 2025), and we will be talking with him about that in a future episode. He has also authored Gaius Marius: The Rise and Fall of Rome’s Saviour (Pen & Sword, 2017), Romulus: The Legend of Rome's Founding Father (Pen & Sword, 2020), but our focus today is going to be on Marcus Furius Camillus: The Life of Rome’s Second Founder (Pen & Sword, 2023). Things to Listen Out For: ·        Camillus’ controversies ·        Camillus’ rise to fame ·        The many virtues of Camillus ·        The legacy of this Roman hero We are sure you will love hearing Marc talk about Camillus, the man who served as a role model for later Roman luminaries like Julius Caesar and Augustus. If you would like to hear more, we have a stack of episodes in our back catalogue that feature Camillus. Sound CreditsOur music is by Bettina Joy de Guzman

Episode 167 - The Gallic Sack of Rome - Part 2We rejoin the Romans and the Gauls in 390 BCE at the place where the Tiber river intersects with the Alia river. Turns out that when a bunch of Fabians upset the Gauls, those Gauls decide to march south towards Rome… How many Gauls and how many Romans met at the rivers’ edge? Well, the numbers are probably unreliable but the Romans are pretty sure they are outnumbered.The Battle at the AliaThere seems to be a few issues at this moment including the Roman failure to build a proper camp and - even worse - failure to take the auspices. Is this some foreshadowing from our friend Livy?Stay tuned for a discussion of the slim layout of the Roman forces. Brennus, the putative leader of the Gauls, seems to be uncertain that there may be some secret tactic or force that he hasn’t been able to account for. There’s also the problem of which bank of the river the battle takes place on which may influence where Roman forces end up. Will the Romans take the day or will they flail in the face of the Gallic strength? Are there some tactics involved that scholars can discern from the literary accounts that aren’t immediately obvious?The Roman Retreat When the day goes against Rome, the retreat seems to be chaotic. Some of the Romans retreat to Rome, which makes sense, and some retreat to Veii. This creates a host of uncertainty for the Romans who survive particularly those who head back to Rome and don’t find their comrades there. The assumption of Roman losses is significant.The Gauls meanwhile continue to suspect that there is a surprise attack from the Romans coming, but after some time they decide it’s worth marching on Rome just to see what they can see.  Things to listen out for:Gauls getting ‘organised’ after AliaThe priestesses of Vesta get involvedGeneral Akbar and the Gauls coming togetherThe role of the citadel on the Capitoline HillThe Gauls confused about Rome - the city?How does the levy of the Roman army work in this moment?The security of the sacred objects of RomeThe Vestal Virgins on the move!What happens to the eldest noble Romans now the Gauls are at the gatesLucius Albinus - ’the noble Plebeian’?